¿Estrellas o constelaciones? Implicaciones de los estudios cognitivos para el modelo dimensional de la emoción
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24310/espsiescpsi.v9i2.13206Palabras clave:
Emoción, Cognición, Core Affect, Modelo DimensionalResumen
Uno de los principales debates dentro del estudio de la psicología de la emoción concierne a la concepción de las emociones como constructos psicológicos unificados (categoriales/discretos) en contraposición con el enfoque di-mensional del episodio emocional. En este marco, el modelo dimensional de Russell (2003) destaca en el panorama académico al constituir una propuesta integradora que da cuenta de una serie de problemas históricos del ámbito de estudio. Con este fin, se realiza una aproximación analítica a dicho modelo y se argumenta su viabilidad. El presente artículo tiene como objetivo revisar la evidencia empírica a favor de cuatro hipótesis que sostiene el modelo dimensional de Russell: (1) Existe una primacía temporal de los afectos básicos frente a los componentes más cognitivos en el desarrollo de la emoción, (2) los cambios afectivos percibidos facilitan la accesibilidad del material hedónicamente congruente, (3) la mente humana puede atribuir erróneamente la experimentación de un determinado core affect al estímulo incorrecto, y (4) la experimentación de los componentes dimensionales facilita la ocurrencia de respuestas cognitivas congruentes. Se concluye que la combinación de componentes dimensionales inespecíficos, tanto de tipo puramente afectivo como de carácter más “cognitivo” constituyen ocasionalmente los prototipos emocionales. En consecuencia, se propone que el modelo dimensional de Russell (2003) constituye una alternativa integradora de gran potencial para abordar el estudio de la naturaleza de la emoción.
Descargas
Métricas
Citas
Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behavior. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 165–178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn1056
Almeida, J., Pajtas, P. E., Mahon, B. Z., Nakayama, K. & Caramazza, A. (2013). Affect of the unconscious: Visually suppressed angry faces modulate our decisions. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 94-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13415-012-0133-7
Atkinson, A.P. & Adolphs, R. (2005). Nonconscious emotions. Visual emotion perception. Mechanisms and processes. En L.F. Barrett, P.M. Niedenthal & P. Winkielman (Comp.), Emotion and consciousness (pp. 150–182). New York: Guilford Press.
Bach, D. R., Hurlemann, R. & Dolan, R. J. (2015). Impaired threat prioritization after selective bilateral amygdala lesions. Cortex, 63, 206-213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2014.08.017
Barrett, L. F. (2012). Emotions are real. Emotion, 12, 413 – 429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027555
Beer, J. S., John, O., Scabini, D. & Knight, R. T. (2006). Orbitofrontal cortex and social behavior. Integrating self-monitoring and emotion cognition interactions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 871–879. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.6.871
Blaison, C., Imhoff, R., Hühnel, I., Hess, U. & Banse, R.(2012). The affect misattribution procedure: Hot or not? Emotion, 12, 403-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026907
Bower, G.H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.129
Calder, A. J., Lawrence, A. D. & Young, A. W. (2001). The Neuropsychology of Fear and Loathing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 352-363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35072584
Calder, A. J., Keane, J., Young, A. W., Lawrence, A. D., Mason, S. & Barker, R. A. (2010). The relation between anger and different forms of disgust. Implications for emotion recognition impairments in Huntington’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 48, 2719 –2729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.05.019
Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E. & Tsai, J. L. (2010). Self-focused attention and emotional reactivity: The role of culture. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 507-519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018534
Clark, M. S. & Isen, A. M. (1982). Toward understanding the relationship between feeling states and social behavior. Cognitive Social Psychology, 73, 108.
Clark, M. S. & Isen, A. M. (1982). Toward understand-ing the relationship between feeling states and social behavior. En A. H. Hastrof & A. M. Isen (Eds.), Cognitive social psychology (pp. 73-108). Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland.
Damasio, A. R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. Harcourt Brace: Random House.
Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of emotions in animals and man. London: Murray. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10001-000
Diéguez-Risco, T., Aguado, L., Albert, J. & Hinojosa, J. A.(2013). Faces in context: Modulation of expression processing by situational information. Social neuroscience, 8, 601-620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2013.834842
Dolan, R. J. (2002). Emotion, cognition, and behavior. Sci-ence, 298, 1191-1194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1076358
Doyen, S., Klein, O., Simons, D., Cleeremans, A. & Cleer-emans, A. (2014). On the other side of the mirror. Priming in cognitive and social psychology. Social Cognition, 32,12-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.12
Ekman, P. (1999). Basic emotions. En T. Dalgleish y M. Power (Comp.) Handbook of cognition and emotion. Sussex: Wiley.
Ekman, P. & Cordaro, D. T. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion Review 3, 364–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410740
Ellsworth, P. C. & Scherer, K. R. (2003). Appraisal pro-cesses in emotion. En R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer & H. Goldsmith (comps.), Handbook of Affective Sciences (pp. 572–95). Oxford: University Press.
Eskine, K. J., Kacinik, N. A. & Prinz, J. J. (2011). A Bad Taste in the Mouth: Gustatory Disgust Influences Moral Judgments. Psychological Science, 22, 295-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611398497
Flexas, A., Rosselló, J., Christensen, J.F., Nadal, M., Oli-vera La Rosa, A. & Munar, E. (2013). Affective Priming Using Facial Expressions Modulates Liking for Abstract Art. PLoS ONE 8, e80154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080154
Fukui, H. & Toyoshima, K. (2014). Music increase altruism through regulating the secretion of steroid hormones and peptides. Medical hypotheses, 83, 706-708. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2014.09.023
Gawronski, B. & Ye, Y. (2014). What drives priming effects in the affect misattribution procedure? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 3-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167213502548
Gendron, M., Roberson, D., van der Vyver, J. M. & Barrett, L. F. (2014). Cultural relativity in perceiving emotion from vocalizations. Psychological science, 25, 911-920. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613517239
Gibbons, H. (2009). Evaluative priming from subliminal emotional words: insights from event-related potentials and individual differences related to anxiety. Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 383-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2009.02.007
Grossmann, I., Ellsworth, P. C. & Hong, Y. Y. (2012). Culture, attention, and emotion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 31-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023817
Gu, X., Liu, X., Van Dam, N. T., Hof, P. R. & Fan, J.(2013). Cognition–emotion integration in the anterior insular cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 23, 20-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr367
Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer & H. H. Goldsmith (Comps.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 852-870). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hamann, S. (2012). Mapping discrete and dimensional emotions onto the brain: controversies and consensus. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 458-466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.07.006
Han, S., Lerner, J. S. & Keltner, D. (2007). Feelings and Consumer Decision Making: The Appraisal-Tendency Framework. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17, 158-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70023-2
Hermans, D., Spruyt, A., De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (2003). Affective priming with subliminally presented pictures. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 57, 97-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0087416
Higgins, E. T. (1998). The aboutness principle: A pervasive influence on human inference. Social Cognition, 16, 173-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.1998.16.1.173
Izard, C. E. (2011). Forms and functions of emotions: Mat-ters of emotion-cognition interactions. Emotion Review, 3, 371–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410737
James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Macmillan.
Keltner, D., Ellsworth P. C., & Edwards, K. (1993). Beyond simple pessimism: Effects of sadness and anger on social perception. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 64, 740-752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.740
Kirschner, S., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Joint music making promotes prosocial behavior in 4-year-old children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 354-364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.04.004
Kokal I, Engel A, Kirschner S, Keysers C (2011). Synchronized Drumming Enhances Activity in the Caudate and Facilitates Prosocial Commitment - If the Rhythm Comes Easily. PLoS ONE 6, e27272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027272
Kringelbach, M. L., Green, A. L., Owen, S. L., Schweder, P. M. & Aziz, T. Z. (2010). Sing the mind electric–principles of deep brain stimulation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 1070-1079. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07419.x
Kuchinke, L., Krause, B., Fritsch, N. & Briesemeister, B. B.(2014). A familiar font drives early emotional effects in word recognition. Brain and language, 137, 142-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.08.007
Kuppens, P., Champagne, D. & Tuerlinckx, F. (2012). The dynamic interplay between appraisal and core affect in daily life. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00380
Lang, P. J. (1980). Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: Computer applications. En J. B. Sidowski, J. H. Johnson, & E. A Williams (Comps.), Technology in Mental Health Care Delivery Systems (pp. 119-137). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Lee, S. W. S. & Schwarz, N. (2010). Dirty hands and dirty mouths: Embodiment of the moral-purity metaphor is specific to the motor modality involved in moral transgression. Psychological Science, 21, 1423-1425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797610382788
Lerner, J. S., Goldberg, J. & Tetlock, P. E. (1998). Sober second thought: The effects of accountability, anger, and authoritarianism on attributions of responsibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 563-574. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167298246001
Lerner, J. S. & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.146
Lin, D., Boyle, M. P., Dollar, P., Lee, H., Lein, E. S., Perona, P. & Anderson, D. J. (2011). Functional identification of an aggression locus in the mouse hypothalamus. Nature, 470, 221-226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09736
Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E. & Barrett, L. F. (2012). The brain basis of emotion: a meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 121-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11000446
Lodge, M. & Taber, C. S. (2005). The automaticity of affect for political leaders, groups, and issues: An experimental test of the hot cognition hypothesis. Political Psychology, 26, 455-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2005.00426.x
Meier, B. P., Schnall, S., Schwarz, N. & Bargh, J. A.(2012). Embodiment in social psychology. Topics in cognitive science, 4, 705-716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01212.x
G. Meilán, J., Carro, J., Guerrero, C., Carpi, A., Gómez, C. & Palmero, F. (2012). El efecto de memoria congruente con el estado afectivo: reconocimiento diferencial de palabras de tristeza y alegría. Anales De Psicología, 28, 266-273.
Moons, W. G., Eisenberger, N. I. & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Anger and fear responses to stress have different biological profiles. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 24, 215-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.009
Motta, S. C., Goto, M., Gouveia, F. V., Baldo, M. V., Canteras, N. S. & Swanson, L. W. (2009). Dissecting the brain’s fear system reveals the hypothalamus is critical for responding in subordinate conspecific intruders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 4870-4875. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0900939106
Murphy, S. T. & Zajonc, R. B. (1993). Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 723-739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.723
Niedenthal, P.M. (2008). Emotion concepts. En. M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L.F. Barrett (Comps.) Handbook of Emotions (pp. 587-600). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Olivera La Rosa, A. & Rosselló-Mir, J. (2012). Shocking moral judgments. Lap Lambert Saarbrücken: Academic Publishing.
Ousdal, O. T., Andreassen, O. A., Server, A. & Jensen, J.(2014). Increased Amygdala and Visual Cortex Activity and Functional Connectivity towards stimulus novelty is associated with state anxiety. PloS one, 9, e96146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096146
Oveis, C., Horberg, E. J. & Keltner, D. (2010). Compassion, pride, and social intuitions of self-other similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 618-630. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017628
Paez, D. & Carbonero, A. (1993). Afectividad, Cognición y Conducta social. Psicothema, 5, 133-150.
Palermo, R. & Rhodes, G. (2007). Are you always on my mind? A review of how face perception and attention interact. Neuropsychologia, 45, 75–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.025
Paulmann, S. & Pell, M. D. (2009). Decoding emotional faces depends on their representational value: ERP evidence. NeuroReport, 20, 1603-1608. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3283320e3f
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O. & Stewart, B. D. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
Phelps, E. A. (2006). Emotion and cognition: insights from studies of the human amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 27-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev. psych.56.091103.070234
Prochnow, D., Kossack, H., Brunheim, S., Müller, K., Wittsack, H. J., Markowitsch, H. J. & Seitz, R. J. (2013). Processing of subliminal facial expressions of emotion: A behavioral and fMRI study. Social neuroscience, 8, 448-461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2013.812536
Reisenzein, R. (1994). Pleasure-arousal theory and the intensity of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 525-539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.525
Rohr, M., Degner, J. & Wentura, D. (2012). Masked emotional priming beyond global valence activations. Cognition & Emotion, 26, 224-244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.576852
Rohr, M., Degner, J. & Wentura, D. (2014). The “emotion misattribution” procedure: Processing beyond good and bad under masked and unmasked presentation conditions. Cognition & Emotion, 29, 196-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.898613
Rosselló, J. & Revert, X. (2008). Modelos teóricos en el estudio científico de la emoción. En F. Palmero & F. Martínez (Comps.) Motivación y emoción (pp. 95-137). Madrid: McGraw-Hill
Rovira, D. P. & Martínez, A. J. C. (1993). Afectividad, cognición y conducta social. Psicothema, 5, 133-150.
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110, 145-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145
Russell, J. A. (2009). Emotion, core affect, and psychological construction. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 1259-1283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930902809375
Russell, J. A. & Barrett, L. F. (1999) Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 805–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805
Scarantino, A. (2012) Functional specialization does not require a one to-one mapping between brain regions and emotions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 161–162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11001749
Schachter, S. & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psycho-logical Review, 69, 379-399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0046234
Scherer, K. R. (2001). The nature and study of appraisal: A review of the issues. En K.R. Scherar, A. Schorr & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal Processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 369-391). New York: Oxford University Press.
Schnall, S. (2011). Clean, proper and tidy are more than the absence of dirty, disgusting and wrong. Emotion review, 3, 264-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073911402397
Schnall, S., Benton, J. & Harvey, S. (2008). With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the severity of moral judgments. Psychological Science, 19, 1219-1222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02227.x
Schnall, S., Roper, J. & Fessler, D. M. (2010). Elevation leads to altruistic behavior. Psychological science, 21, 315-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797609359882
Schwarz, N. (2011). Feelings-as-information theory. En P.A.M. Van Lange, A.W. Kruglanski & E.T. Higins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 289-308). California: Sage.
Schimmack, U. & Derryberry, D. E. (2005). Atten-tional interference effects of emotional pictures: threat, negativity, or arousal? Emotion, 5, 55-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.55
Seidel, A. & Prinz, J. (2013a). Mad and glad: Musically induced emotions have divergent impact on morals. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 629-637. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9320-7
Seidel, A. & Prinz, J. (2013b). Sound morality: Irritating and icky noises amplify judgments in divergent moral domains. Cognition, 127, 1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.11.004
Shannon, M. L. & Stark, C. P. (2003). The influence of physical appearance on personnel selection. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 31, 613-623. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.6.613
Smith, C. A. & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cogni-tive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 813-838. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.4.813
Tsuchiya, N., Moradi, F., Felsen, C., Yamazaki, M. & Adolphs, R. (2009). Intact rapid detection of fearful faces in the absence of the amygdala. Nature neuroscience, 12, 1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn.2380
Vytal, K. & Hamann, S. (2010). Neuroimaging support for discrete neural correlates of basic emotions: a voxel-based meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 2864-2885. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21366
Wang, J., Xia, T., Xu, L., Ru, T., Mo, C., Wang, T. T. & Mo, L. (2015). What is beautiful brings out what is good in you: The effect of facial attractiveness on individuals’ honesty. International Journal of Psychology. (Publicado online: 17 Sep). http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12218
Widen, S. C., Christy, A. M., Hewett, K. & Russell, J. A. (2011). Do proposed facial expressions of contempt, shame, embarrassment, and compassion communicate the predicted emotion? Cognition & Emotion, 25, 898-906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.508270
Wilson-Mendenhall, C. D., Barrett, L. F. & Barsalou, L. W.(2013). Neural Evidence That Human Emotions Share Core Affective Properties. Psychological Science, 24, 947-956. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464242
Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C. & Wilbarger, J. L. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1, 121-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271309
Wong, P. S. & Root, J. C. (2003). Dynamic variations in affective priming. Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 147-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8100(03)00007-2
Yang, Z. & Tong, E. M. W. (2010). The effects of subliminal anger and sadness primes on agency appraisals. Emotion, 10, 915-922. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020306
Yang, J., Xu, X., Du, X., Shi, C. & Fang, F. (2011). Effects of unconscious processing on implicit memory for fearful faces. PloS one, 6, e14641. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014641
Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.2.151
Zajonc, R. B. (2000). Feeling ad thinking: Closing the debate over the independence of affect. En J. P. Forgas (Comp.), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 31-58). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Descargas
Publicado
Cómo citar
Número
Sección
Licencia
Todos los contenidos publicados en Escritos de Psicología están sujetos a la licencia Creative Commons Reconocimento-NoComercia-Compartirigual 4.0 cuyo texto completo puede consultar en <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0>
Se pueden copiar, usar, difundir, transmitir y exponer públicamente, siempre que:
- Se cite la autoría y la fuente original de su publicación (revista, editorial y URL de la obra).
- No se usen para fines comerciales.
- Se mencione la existencia y especificaciones de esta licencia de uso.
Los derechos de autor son de dos clases: morales y patrimoniales. Los derechos morales son prerrogativas perpetuas, irrenunciables, intransferibles, inalienables, inembargables e imprescriptibles. De acuerdo con la legislación de derechos de autor, Escritos de Psicología reconoce y respeta el derecho moral de los autores/as, así como la titularidad del derecho patrimonial. Los derechos patrimoniales, se refieren a los beneficios que se obtienen por el uso o divulgación de las obras. Escritos de Psicología se publica en open access y queda autorizada en exclusiva para realizar u autorizar por cualquier medio el uso, distribución, divulgación, reproducción, adaptación, traducción o transformación de la obra.
Es responsabilidad de los autores/as obtener los permisos necesarios de las imágenes que están sujetas a derechos de autor.