The somatic marker hypothesis and the neurobiology of decisions
Keywords:
Damasio, somatic marker hypothesis, neurobiology of decisions, emotions, brain-body problemAbstract
The somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) has been one of the most influential theories in the neurosciences since the early 1990s, when it was formulated by Antonio Damasio in his book Descartes’ Error (1994). Since then, various studies, for and against, have been written without a verdict. Firstly, this study provides a comprehensive explanation of the SMH. Secondly, it provides a detailed assessment of the relevance of the amygdala in the process of making unconscious decisions. In contrast, we cite some results that suggest that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex would be involved in our rational decisions. Finally, we review some of the criticism of the SMH that was based on the mixed results obtained in the Iowa Gambling Task. We suggest that the main value of the SMH is that it resolves the brain-body duality problem. However, the hypothesis by itself is insufficient to claim that the decision-making process is mainly based on our feelings. Although the decision-making process uses unconscious somatosensory responses, it is a more complex physical-emotional-rational process, which still lacks sufficient evidence to be located.
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References
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2. Averill, J. R. (1992). The structural bases of emotional behavior: A metatheoretical analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
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4. Bechara, A. (2004). The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain and Cognition 55, 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2003.04.001
5. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999). Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of neuroscience, 19, 5473-5481. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-13-05473.1999
6. Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2000). Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123, 2189-2202. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/123.11.2189
7. Breit, S., Kupferberg, A., Rogler, G., & Hasler, G. (2018). Vagus nerve as modulator of the brain–gut axis in psychiatric and inflammatory disorders. Frontiers in psychiatry, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00044
8. Clark, L., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Aitken, M. R. F., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision-making. Brain, 131, 1311-1322. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn066
9. Coutlee, C. G., & Huettel, S. A. (2012). The functional neuroanatomy of decision making: prefrontal control of thought and action. Brain research 1428, 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.05.053
10. Damasio, A. (1994) Descartes error. New York: Putnam. [Nota: existe la traducción al español de Pierre Jacomet, El error de Descartes de 1996, Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello y una más reciente de Joandomènec Ros para Editorial Crítica y publicada en 2011. Una más reciente, en 2018, en Kindle por Editorial Planeta].
11. Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt [Nota: existe la traducción al español Damasio, A. (2000). Sentir lo que sucede. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello. La más reciente: Damasio, A. (2018) La sensación de lo que ocurre: Cuerpo y emoción en la construcción de la conciencia. Planeta, edición Kindle].
12. Damasio, A. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain. New Yor: Harcourt. [Nota: traducción al español: Damasio, A. (2011) En busca de Spinoza. Neurobiología de la emoción y los sentimientos. Barcelona: Destino. La más reciente Damasio, A. (2018) En busca de Spinoza: Neurobiología de la emoción y los sentimientos. Planeta, edición Kindle].
13. Damasio, A. R. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 351, 1413-1420. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1996.0125
14. Damasio, A. (2010). Self comes to mind: Constructing the conscious brain. New York: Vintage. [Nota: existe la traducción al español Damasio, A. (2012). Y el cerebro creó al hombre. Barcelona: Destino].
15. Damasio, H., T. Grabowski, R. Frank, A.M. Galaburda & A.R. Damasio. (1994). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science 264,1102-1105. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.8178168
16. Damsma, G., Pfaus, J. G., Wenkstern, D., Phillips, A. G., & Fibiger, H. C. (1992). Sexual behavior increases dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of male rats: comparison with novelty and locomotion. Behavioral neuroscience, 106, 181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.106.1.181
17. Descartes, R. (1637/2004). Discurso del método. Buenos Aires: Colihue.
18. Desmet, P. M. (2012). Faces of product pleasure: 25 positive emotions in human-product interactions. International Journal of Design, 6.
19. Doherty, R. W. (1997). The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. Journal of nonverbal Behavior, 21, 131-154. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024956003661
20. Dunn, B. D., Dalgleish, T., & Lawrence, A. D. (2006). The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 239-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.07.001
21. Franken, I. H., Georgieva, I., Muris, P., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2006). The rich get richer and the poor get poorer: On risk aversion in behavioral decision-making. Judgment and Decision Making, 1, 153-158.
22. Galimberti, U. (2002). Diccionario de psicología. México: Siglo XXI.
23. Greenberg, L. (2000). Emociones: una guía interna. Ed. Descleé de Brouwer.
24. Greene, J. D. (2007). Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains. Trends in cognitive sciences, 11, 322-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.004
25. Greene, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Engell, A. D., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron, 44, 389-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.027
26. Gupta, R., Koscik, T. R., Bechara, A., & Tranel, D. (2011). The amygdala and decision-making. Neuropsychologia, 49, 760-766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.029
27. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological review, 108, 814. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.108.4.814
28. Jacques, A., Chaaya, N., Hettiarachchi, C., Carmody, M. L., Beecher, K., Belmer, A., Chehrehasa, Bartlett, Battle, & Johnson, L. R. (2019). Microtopography of fear memory consolidation and extinction retrieval within prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Psychopharmacology, 236(1), 383-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5068-4
29. Jansen, A. S., Van Nguyen, X., Karpitskiy, V., Mettenleiter, T. C., & Loewy, A. D. (1995). Central command neurons of the sympathetic nervous system: basis of the fight-or-flight response. Science, 270, 644-646. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5236.644
30. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. UK: Macmillan.
31. Linquist, S., & Bartol, J. (2012). Two myths about somatic markers. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 64, 455-484. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axs020
32. Maia, T. V., & McClelland, J. L. (2004). A reexamination of the evidence for the somatic marker hypothesis: what participants really know in the Iowa gambling task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 16075-16080. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406666101
33. Márquez, M., Alcañiz, M. P. S., Quesada, S. G. P., & Bailén, J. R. A. (2013). La hipótesis del Marcador Somático y su nivel de incidencia en el proceso de toma de decisiones. REMA 18, 17-36.
34. Martínez-Selva, J. M., Sánchez-Navarro, J. P., Bechara, A., & Román, F. (2006). Mecanismos cerebrales de la toma de decisiones. Revista de neurología, 42, 411-418. https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.4207.2006161
35. Muñoz, J. M. (2017). Somatic markers, rhetoric, and post-truth. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 1273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01273
36. Pfaus, J. G. (1999). Neurobiology of sexual behavior. Current opinion in neurobiology, 9(6), 751-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4388(99)00034-3
37. Pfaus, J. G., Damsma, G., Nomikos, G. G., Wenkstern, D. G., Blaha, C. D., Phillips, A. G., & Fibiger, H. C. (1990). Sexual behavior enhances central dopamine transmission in the male rat. Brain research, 530, 345-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(90)91309-5
38. Phillips, R. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (1992). Differential contribution of amygdala and hippocampus to cued and contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral neuroscience, 106, 274. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.106.2.274
39. Poeppl, T. B., Langguth, B., Rupprecht, R., Safron, A., Bzdok, D., Laird, A. R., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2016). The neural basis of sex differences in sexual behavior: A quantitative meta-analysis. Frontiers in neuroendocrinology, 43, 28-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2016.10.001
40. Rosenbloom, M. H., Schmahmann, J. D., & Price, B. H. (2012). The functional neuroanatomy of decision-making. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 24, 266-277. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11060139
41. Rossi-Pool, R., Zainos, A., Alvarez, M., Zizumbo, J., Vergara, J., & Romo, R. (2017). Decoding a decision process in the neuronal population of dorsal premotor cortex. Neuron, 96, 1432-1446. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3155890
42. Russell, J. (1991) Culture and the Categorization of Emotions. Psychological Bulletin 110, 426-50. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.110.3.426
43. Schultz, W. (2007). Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annu. Rev. Neurosci, 30, 259-288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135722
44. Schwartz, G. E., & Weinberger, D. A. (1980). Patterns of emotional responses to affective situations: Relations among happiness, sadness, anger, fear, depression, and anxiety. Motivation and emotion, 4, 175-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00995197
45. Seno, M. D., Assis, D. V., Gouveia, F., Antunes, G. F., Kuroki, M., Oliveira, C. C., Lennon C. T. Santos, Rosana L. Pagano & Martinez, R. C. (2018). The critical role of amygdala subnuclei in nociceptive and depressive-like behaviors in peripheral neuropathy. Scientific reports, 8, 13608. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31962-w
46. Skarlicki, D. P., & Rupp, D. E. (2010). Dual processing and organizational justice: The role of rational versus experiential processing in third-party reactions to workplace mistreatment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 944. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020468
47. Sprengelmeyer, R., Rausch, M., Eysel, U. T., & Przuntek, H. (1998). Neural structures associated with recognition of facial expressions of basic emotions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 265, 1927-1931. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0522
48. Steimer, T. (2002). The biology of fear-and anxiety-related behaviors. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 4, 231.
49. Thaler, R. H., & Johnson, E. J. (1990). Gambling with the house money and trying to break even: The effects of prior outcomes on risky choice. Management science, 36, 643-660. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.36.6.643
50. Tomb, I., Hauser, M., Deldin, P., & Caramazza, A. (2002). Do somatic markers mediate decisions on the gambling task? Nature neuroscience, 5, 1103. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1102-1103
51. van den Bos, W., & Güro?lu, B. (2009). The role of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex in social decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 7631-7632. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1821-09.2009
52. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., & Baler, R. D. (2011). Reward, dopamine and the control of food intake: implications for obesity. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15, 37-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.001
2. Averill, J. R. (1992). The structural bases of emotional behavior: A metatheoretical analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
3. Barrett, L. F. (2018). La vida secreta del cerebro: Cómo se construyen las emociones. Madrid: Paidós.
4. Bechara, A. (2004). The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain and Cognition 55, 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2003.04.001
5. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999). Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of neuroscience, 19, 5473-5481. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-13-05473.1999
6. Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2000). Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123, 2189-2202. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/123.11.2189
7. Breit, S., Kupferberg, A., Rogler, G., & Hasler, G. (2018). Vagus nerve as modulator of the brain–gut axis in psychiatric and inflammatory disorders. Frontiers in psychiatry, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00044
8. Clark, L., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Aitken, M. R. F., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision-making. Brain, 131, 1311-1322. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn066
9. Coutlee, C. G., & Huettel, S. A. (2012). The functional neuroanatomy of decision making: prefrontal control of thought and action. Brain research 1428, 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.05.053
10. Damasio, A. (1994) Descartes error. New York: Putnam. [Nota: existe la traducción al español de Pierre Jacomet, El error de Descartes de 1996, Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello y una más reciente de Joandomènec Ros para Editorial Crítica y publicada en 2011. Una más reciente, en 2018, en Kindle por Editorial Planeta].
11. Damasio, A. (1999). The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. New York: Harcourt [Nota: existe la traducción al español Damasio, A. (2000). Sentir lo que sucede. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello. La más reciente: Damasio, A. (2018) La sensación de lo que ocurre: Cuerpo y emoción en la construcción de la conciencia. Planeta, edición Kindle].
12. Damasio, A. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain. New Yor: Harcourt. [Nota: traducción al español: Damasio, A. (2011) En busca de Spinoza. Neurobiología de la emoción y los sentimientos. Barcelona: Destino. La más reciente Damasio, A. (2018) En busca de Spinoza: Neurobiología de la emoción y los sentimientos. Planeta, edición Kindle].
13. Damasio, A. R. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 351, 1413-1420. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1996.0125
14. Damasio, A. (2010). Self comes to mind: Constructing the conscious brain. New York: Vintage. [Nota: existe la traducción al español Damasio, A. (2012). Y el cerebro creó al hombre. Barcelona: Destino].
15. Damasio, H., T. Grabowski, R. Frank, A.M. Galaburda & A.R. Damasio. (1994). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science 264,1102-1105. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.8178168
16. Damsma, G., Pfaus, J. G., Wenkstern, D., Phillips, A. G., & Fibiger, H. C. (1992). Sexual behavior increases dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of male rats: comparison with novelty and locomotion. Behavioral neuroscience, 106, 181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.106.1.181
17. Descartes, R. (1637/2004). Discurso del método. Buenos Aires: Colihue.
18. Desmet, P. M. (2012). Faces of product pleasure: 25 positive emotions in human-product interactions. International Journal of Design, 6.
19. Doherty, R. W. (1997). The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. Journal of nonverbal Behavior, 21, 131-154. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024956003661
20. Dunn, B. D., Dalgleish, T., & Lawrence, A. D. (2006). The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 239-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.07.001
21. Franken, I. H., Georgieva, I., Muris, P., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2006). The rich get richer and the poor get poorer: On risk aversion in behavioral decision-making. Judgment and Decision Making, 1, 153-158.
22. Galimberti, U. (2002). Diccionario de psicología. México: Siglo XXI.
23. Greenberg, L. (2000). Emociones: una guía interna. Ed. Descleé de Brouwer.
24. Greene, J. D. (2007). Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains. Trends in cognitive sciences, 11, 322-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.004
25. Greene, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Engell, A. D., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron, 44, 389-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.027
26. Gupta, R., Koscik, T. R., Bechara, A., & Tranel, D. (2011). The amygdala and decision-making. Neuropsychologia, 49, 760-766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.029
27. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological review, 108, 814. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.108.4.814
28. Jacques, A., Chaaya, N., Hettiarachchi, C., Carmody, M. L., Beecher, K., Belmer, A., Chehrehasa, Bartlett, Battle, & Johnson, L. R. (2019). Microtopography of fear memory consolidation and extinction retrieval within prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Psychopharmacology, 236(1), 383-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5068-4
29. Jansen, A. S., Van Nguyen, X., Karpitskiy, V., Mettenleiter, T. C., & Loewy, A. D. (1995). Central command neurons of the sympathetic nervous system: basis of the fight-or-flight response. Science, 270, 644-646. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5236.644
30. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. UK: Macmillan.
31. Linquist, S., & Bartol, J. (2012). Two myths about somatic markers. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 64, 455-484. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axs020
32. Maia, T. V., & McClelland, J. L. (2004). A reexamination of the evidence for the somatic marker hypothesis: what participants really know in the Iowa gambling task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 16075-16080. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406666101
33. Márquez, M., Alcañiz, M. P. S., Quesada, S. G. P., & Bailén, J. R. A. (2013). La hipótesis del Marcador Somático y su nivel de incidencia en el proceso de toma de decisiones. REMA 18, 17-36.
34. Martínez-Selva, J. M., Sánchez-Navarro, J. P., Bechara, A., & Román, F. (2006). Mecanismos cerebrales de la toma de decisiones. Revista de neurología, 42, 411-418. https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.4207.2006161
35. Muñoz, J. M. (2017). Somatic markers, rhetoric, and post-truth. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 1273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01273
36. Pfaus, J. G. (1999). Neurobiology of sexual behavior. Current opinion in neurobiology, 9(6), 751-758. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4388(99)00034-3
37. Pfaus, J. G., Damsma, G., Nomikos, G. G., Wenkstern, D. G., Blaha, C. D., Phillips, A. G., & Fibiger, H. C. (1990). Sexual behavior enhances central dopamine transmission in the male rat. Brain research, 530, 345-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(90)91309-5
38. Phillips, R. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (1992). Differential contribution of amygdala and hippocampus to cued and contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral neuroscience, 106, 274. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.106.2.274
39. Poeppl, T. B., Langguth, B., Rupprecht, R., Safron, A., Bzdok, D., Laird, A. R., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2016). The neural basis of sex differences in sexual behavior: A quantitative meta-analysis. Frontiers in neuroendocrinology, 43, 28-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2016.10.001
40. Rosenbloom, M. H., Schmahmann, J. D., & Price, B. H. (2012). The functional neuroanatomy of decision-making. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 24, 266-277. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11060139
41. Rossi-Pool, R., Zainos, A., Alvarez, M., Zizumbo, J., Vergara, J., & Romo, R. (2017). Decoding a decision process in the neuronal population of dorsal premotor cortex. Neuron, 96, 1432-1446. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3155890
42. Russell, J. (1991) Culture and the Categorization of Emotions. Psychological Bulletin 110, 426-50. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.110.3.426
43. Schultz, W. (2007). Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annu. Rev. Neurosci, 30, 259-288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135722
44. Schwartz, G. E., & Weinberger, D. A. (1980). Patterns of emotional responses to affective situations: Relations among happiness, sadness, anger, fear, depression, and anxiety. Motivation and emotion, 4, 175-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00995197
45. Seno, M. D., Assis, D. V., Gouveia, F., Antunes, G. F., Kuroki, M., Oliveira, C. C., Lennon C. T. Santos, Rosana L. Pagano & Martinez, R. C. (2018). The critical role of amygdala subnuclei in nociceptive and depressive-like behaviors in peripheral neuropathy. Scientific reports, 8, 13608. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31962-w
46. Skarlicki, D. P., & Rupp, D. E. (2010). Dual processing and organizational justice: The role of rational versus experiential processing in third-party reactions to workplace mistreatment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 944. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020468
47. Sprengelmeyer, R., Rausch, M., Eysel, U. T., & Przuntek, H. (1998). Neural structures associated with recognition of facial expressions of basic emotions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 265, 1927-1931. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0522
48. Steimer, T. (2002). The biology of fear-and anxiety-related behaviors. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 4, 231.
49. Thaler, R. H., & Johnson, E. J. (1990). Gambling with the house money and trying to break even: The effects of prior outcomes on risky choice. Management science, 36, 643-660. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.36.6.643
50. Tomb, I., Hauser, M., Deldin, P., & Caramazza, A. (2002). Do somatic markers mediate decisions on the gambling task? Nature neuroscience, 5, 1103. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1102-1103
51. van den Bos, W., & Güro?lu, B. (2009). The role of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex in social decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 7631-7632. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1821-09.2009
52. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., & Baler, R. D. (2011). Reward, dopamine and the control of food intake: implications for obesity. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15, 37-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.001
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2019-07-01
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Morandín-Ahuerma, F. (2019). The somatic marker hypothesis and the neurobiology of decisions. Escritos De Psicología - Psychological Writings, 12(1), 20–29. Retrieved from https://revistas.uma.es/index.php/espsi/article/view/9920
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