Dual study programs at German higher education institutions and their predecessors: A brief history
Formación dual en las instituciones de la educación superior en Alemania y su predecesores: Una breve historia
Educação dual nas instituições de educação superior na Alemanha e seus antecessores: Uma breve história
Karl Steffens 1
1 University of Cologne (Germany)
|
Fecha de recepción: 04/10/2025 |
Fecha de aceptación: 15/11/2025 |
Fecha de publicación: 30/06/2026 |
Abstract
This paper analyzes the evolution and current status of German dual study programs. Originating in medieval apprenticeships and formalized in the 19th century, dual education advanced with the 1969 Vocational Training Act and the 1972 Stuttgart Model. Initially secondary, these programs expanded into higher education through vocational academies and dual universities. Currently, various institutions, including universities of applied sciences, offer dual degrees primarily in engineering and economics. The study examines legal frameworks, the differentiation between training-, practice-, and career-integrated models, and European initiatives like SAMEurope and EU4DUAL. Ultimately, dual programs remain essential for bridging academic theory with practical workplace experience.
Keywords
Dual-university training, higher education, theory&practice, secondary education, dual training.
Resumen
Este artículo analiza la evolución y estado actual de los programas de estudio dual en Alemania. Surgida del aprendizaje medieval y formalizada en el siglo XIX, la educación dual avanzó con la Ley de Formación Profesional de 1969 y el Modelo de Stuttgart (1972). Tras expandirse de la educación secundaria al nivel superior, dio paso a academias vocacionales y universidades duales. Hoy, diversas instituciones ofrecen estos programas, destacando en ingeniería y economía. El estudio aborda marcos legales, la distinción entre modelos de formación, práctica y carrera, e iniciativas europeas como SAMEurope y EU4DUAL. Los programas duales resultan esenciales para vincular la teoría académica con la experiencia práctica laboral.
Palabras clave
Formación dual universitaria, educación superior, teoría y práctica, educación secundaria, formación dual.
Resumo
Este artigo analisa a evolução e o estado atual dos programas de estudo dual na Alemanha. Com origem na aprendizagem medieval e formalizada no século XIX, a educação dual avançou com a Lei de Formação Profissional de 1969 e o Modelo de Stuttgart (1972). Após expandir-se do ensino secundário para o nível superior, surgiram as academias vocacionais e universidades duais. Atualmente, diversas instituições oferecem estes programas, destacando-se em engenharia e economia. O estudo aborda quadros jurídicos, a distinção entre modelos de formação, prática e carreira, e iniciativas europeias como SAMEurope e EU4DUAL. Os programas duais continuam fundamentais para vincular a teoria académica à experiência prática no local de trabalho.
Palavras-chave
Formação em alternância, Ensino superior, teoria e prática, Ensino secundário, formação em dupla.
1. Introduction
Vocational and educational training has a long history in Germany. Its roots go back to the middle ages where the training was basically vocational. It was not before the 19th century that an educational part was added providing education through schools of continuing education thus establishing a truly dual education. From then on, vocational and educational training expanded in Germany. It was, however, not before the 20th century that dual education arrived at the level of higher education. The corner stone was laid through the Stuttgart model in 1972. Since then, dual education in in higher education has expanded greatly and has opened up to students from other European countries. Recently, there have also been initiatives like SAMEurope and DUAL4Europe to create European alliances for dual education at university level.
2. The predecessors: dual education at secondary school level in Germany
Germany is considered to be one of the countries with the longest tradition of vocational education. The concept of vocational education in Germany has its roots in the middle ages.
2.1 The origins
In the middle ages, vocational education was organised and supervised by guilds. They decided who was allowed to train young men and under what conditions. The basic idea of vocational training was that young men (the apprentices, Lehrlinge) learned their craft by working with a master. In fact, the young works became a member of the master’s household. At the end of the training, the master issued a certificate that the apprentice had honourably left the master’s household and was thus ready to join the brotherhood of journeymen and start his journeyman years (Greinert, 2005).[1].
In the beginning of the 19th century, schools for continuing education (Fortbildungsschulen). were set up to provide basic instruction on reading, writing and arithmetic. Young workers could attend these in the evenings or on Sundays. The first school for continuing education opened in Gotha in 1818 (Grimm, 2015); the state of Prussia established state-wide schools for continuing education in 1874 (Pahl, 2014).
The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century changed the labour scene and as a consequence, the training of young workers had to change. Dual education became more formalized by the Journeymen`s Regulation (Gesellenordnung) of 1897 requiring young workers to spend some of their time a work and some of their time at schools for continuing education.
During that time, schools for continuing education provided the necessary training. In 1912, they were replaced by vocational schools; this form of school exists until today and is the most important institution for providing – in collaboration with workplaces in industry and administration - dual training to young people. It was, however, not before 1938, that young people who were not attending classes in traditional schools were obliged by law to attend vocational schools (Grimm, 2015).
2.2. The 20th century
In the 20th century, dual education became even more formalized in Germany. An important event was the passing of the Vocational Training Act (BBiG, Berufsbildungsgesetzt) in 1969. The law laid the legal groundwork for dual education in Germany by providing clear guidelines for both the content of vocational training and the structure of partnerships between schools and companies. Dual education was dual not only in the sense that it involved both school and companies, it was also dual in the sense that it involved the legal competencies of the federal government with respect to the companies. It also involved the legal competencies of the different state governments regarding school education.
A more detailed account of the development of vocational training and education in Germany is given by Greinert (2006). Greinert (2005) offers a comparative discussion of classical models of the 19th century and training in England, France and Germany during the first half of the 20th. A European perspective on this development is offered by Wollschläger & Guggenheim (2004). The situation of vocational training and education in developing countries is analysed by Georg (2006).
2.3. The situation today
Today, the German educational system is divided into five levels: elementary, primary (grades 1 to 4), secondary I (grades 5 to 10), secondary II (grades 11 to 13), and higher education. The elementary sector covers preschool time, the higher education sector is the sector for university education. School attendance is compulsory up to grade 10 (Edelstein, 2013). Basically, there are two kinds of schools for secondary education; one type are general educational schools, the other type is vocational schools (Berufsschulen). Vocational schools are open for young people at secondary II level (grades 11 to 13) (Bach et al. (2024).
Figure nº 1
Percentages of German students attending different types of secondary schools during the school year 2023/24.
Source: Numbers extracted by ChatGPT from DESTATIS (2024) and KMK (2025).
In figure nº 1, the percentages of German students attending different types of secondary schools in Germany during the school year School 2023/24 are shown. The categories are (1) general secondary (Hauptschule), (2) intermediate secondary (Realschule), (3) academic secondary (Gymnasium), (4) comprehensive (Gesamtschule) and (5) vocational school (Berufsschule). As can be seen, vocational school (5) is the type of school with the largest number of students (34 %), closely followed by students attending academic secondary schools (3) (33 %). Passing the final exam (Abitur) in this type of schools is the entrance ticket for university education. There are, however, other ways to obtain entrance to the university.
3. Dual study programs in Germany
Although there had been dual education at secondary school level in Germany for quite some time, dual studies at higher education level were introduced relatively recently. The first attempt was the proposal of the Stuttgart Modell in 1972 (Brodsky, 2021).
3.1. The beginnings in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg
In the 1960ties, the number of high school students who were ready to enter university increased remarkably and it became evident that the existing universities might not have the capacities to accommodate these increasing numbers[2]. At the same time, there were complaints from representatives of the industry that universities placed too much emphasis on theory. In view of this development it became desirable to extend vocational education and training to universities and other institutions of higher education. Three private companies in the Stuttgart area (Robert Bosch GmbH, Daimler-Benz AG und Standard Elektronik Lorenz AG) therefore suggested to the Ministry of Culture of Baden-Württemberg in 1972 to reorganise vocational education and training for students with high school diploma (Abitur) so that vocational education and training could also be offered by universities and other institutions of higher education. The ensuing discussions laid the groundwork for a new model for higher educational and vocational training to be called the Stuttgart Model (Leitgeb, 2023). As a result, the first dual study programs were established at the newly established vocational academies (Berufsakademien) in Stuttgart and Mannheim in 1974. They offered dual study programs in the field of economy and technology; in 1975, the field of social welfare was added (Leitgeb, 2023).
In the following years, more vocational academies were established in the state of Baden-Württemberg and other German states (Osswald, 1988). The idea was that the new vocational institutions were to satisfy the requirements of the companies to have qualified workers and this was supposed to be achieved by a cooperation between the two vocational training institutions: companies and vocational academies (Wolter, 2016). A law regulating the educational and vocational training as offered by the vocational academies was published in 1982. In the course of time, vocational academies were also established in other federal states of Germany (Leitgeb, 2023). In 2009, the vocational academies in Baden-Württemberg were turned into dual universities (Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg - DHBW) which enabled them to offer a university degree in vocational and educational training (Brodsky, 2021). The Stuttgart Model and the creation of the first vocational academies can be seen as predecessors of today`s dual training institutions at higher education level (Wissenschaftsrat, 2013).
3.2. Dual studies at federal level
At the federal level, the Vocational Education Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz) was passed in 1969 which lead to the implementation of the Federal Institution for Research in Vocational Education (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildungsforschung - BBF) in 1970. In 1976, the BBF was transformed into the Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB) (Schmidt, 1977). Its main responsibilities were to conduct scientific research in vocational education and training, identify future challenges in vocational education, foster innovation in national and international vocational training and develop practical, policy-relevant proposals for vocational education and training (BIBB, n.d.a). Therefore, the BIBB became an umbrella federal institution for vocational education at secondary as well as at higher education level.
As was the case in Baden-Württemberg, it was also recognised at the federal level that the growing numbers of students with high school diploma might overburden the universities and there was an increasing lack of highly trained workers (Brüner et al, 2016). Already in 1973, the German Educational Council (Deutscher Bildungsrat), a federal institution, suggested to develop dual study programs at higher education level that might help mitigate these problems (Osswald, 1988).
In 1976, the Framework Act of Higher Education (Hochschulrahmengesetz) came into effect which set uniform standards for German higher education institutions at federal level. The law regulated access to these institution as well as matters of staff employment and tasks of these institutions (Brüner et al., 2016). However, it only constituted a framework. According to the constitution of Germany (Grundgesetz), matters of education, schools and universities are under the jurisdiction of the federal states. Details of how the universities and other institutions of higher education are to be run are to be determined by the Ministries of Culture in the different federal states (MTRlegal, 2025).
In 1969, the Vocational Education Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz) was passed which lead to the implementation of the of the Federal Institution for Research in Vocational Education (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildungsforschung - BBF) in 1970. In 1976, the BBF was transformed into the Federal Institute of Vocational Education (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung - BIBB), extending its responsibilities beyond research to include planning, statistics, and broader coordination functions (BIBB, n.d.a, n.d.b, Schmidt, 1977).
Most parts of the Framework Act of Higher Education of 1976 were basically deactivated by the Federalism Reform (Föderalismusreform) in 2006. The reform shifter power from federal government agencies even further to those of the federal states leaving the federal government only with narrow regulatory authority in specific areas (e.g., degree structures or research promotion). At the same time, the Framework Act of Higher Education granted the ministries of culture in the different federal states even more independence which allowed them to provide their higher education institutions with the opportunity to develop and implement novel concepts (GEW, 2025). This was particularly important for the development of dual study programs at institutions of higher education. One of the consequences was that the federal state of Baden-Württemberg was allowed to transform its vocational academies into dual universities (Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg - DHBW) which enabled them to offer a university degree in vocational and educational training (Brodsky, 2021).
3.3. Present situation
Today, a variety of higher education institutions offer dual study courses: universities of applied science (Fachhochschulen), dual universities (duale Hochschulen), vocational academies (Berufsakademien), universities (Universitäten) and other higher education institutions (sonstige Hochschulen) (Hofmann et al., 2020). Figure nº 2 shows the number of institutions that offer dual courses at higher education level.
Figure nº 2
Number of institutions that offer dual programs at higher education level in Germany in 2024
Source: BIBB (2024, p.21).
As can be seen in figure nº 2, in 2024 universities of applied science constituted the type of dual higher education that incorporated the highest number of institutions (N=1277), followed by dual universities (N=287). This ranking is also reflected in the number of students attending the different institutions (see table nº 1 below).
Table nº 1
Number of students who took part in a dual study programs at higher educational level in 2024
|
|
Universities of applied science |
Dual universities |
Vocational academies |
Universities |
Other |
|
Public |
47.322 |
33.587 |
5.613 |
2.732 |
1.097 |
|
Private |
15.814 |
587 |
5.959 |
30 |
758 |
|
Total |
63.138 |
34.174 |
11.572 |
2.782 |
1.882 |
Source: adapted from BIBB (2024, p.22).
The majority of students in 2024 attended dual study courses at public institutions (N=90.351), but there was also a considerable number of students who attended these courses at private institutions (N= 23.175) (BIBB, 2024, p.22).
It is also of interest to see what kind of subject groups were offered by these institutions (table nº 2 below).
Table nº 2
Number of dual courses according to different subject groups
|
Subject groups |
N |
|
Engineering Sciences |
869 |
|
Law, Economics, and Social Sciences |
782 |
|
Health Sciences |
123 |
|
Agricultural, Forestry, and Nutritional Sciences |
20 |
|
Sports |
9 |
|
Art and Art Sciences |
10 |
|
Mathematics / Natural Sciences |
9 |
|
Humanities |
2 |
|
Total |
1.824 |
Source: adapted from BIBB (2024, p.16).
Table nº 2 shows that in 2024 engineering sciences and law, economics and social sciences were the subject groups with the highest number of dual courses at higher education level. A more detailed table is presented in BIBB (2024, pp. 18-19).
3.4. Towards a definition of dual studies
Unfortunately, there is some disagreement as to what exactly are the criteria for courses at institutions of higher to legitimately bear the title dual studies (Leitgeb, 2023). According to the recommendations of the German Science Council, the two most important criteria for a dual study program are (1) the integration of two learning locations (institution of higher education and employing company) which is to be secured by an official agreement between these two institutions and (2) science-based studies at an institution of higher education (Wissenschaftsrat, 2013, p.22, DAAD, n.d.). In general, students in a dual study program also sign a contract with their employer.
Consequently, many study programs at German universities which require students to engage in a practicum are not considered to be dual. It is also true that in many of these study programs, relatively little time is dedicated to the practicum. This is the case, for example, in teacher education (cf. Steffens, 2023).
In its recommendations, the Science Council distinguished between (1) training-integrated, (2) practice-integrated and (3) employment-integrated dual study programs. Basically, training-integrated programs offer education and training at an institution of higher education and at company level at the same time. Students follow a higher education as well as a vocational career. At the end of their career, successful students will receive a higher education degree and a certificate of vocational qualification. Students in a practice-integrated dual study program focus on their academic studies where they will receive a bachelor’s or master’s degree, but they will also work in a private company without, however, receiving a certificate of vocational education. Students in a career-integrated dual study program already work in a company, but aim to increase their competencies by taking part in a higher education program (Higher Education Compass, n.d.). All students in a dual study program after completion of their studies will receive a higher education degree (bachelor or master), but only students in a training integrated dual study program will also receive a recognised vocational qualification (Wissenschaftsrat, 2013). For a more detailed description, see Coones et al., (2023), Euler (2013) and Krone (2017).
4. A European perspective
Dual study programs had also been introduced in other European countries (Greinert, 2005). In Spain, for example, Sarceda-Gorgoso et al. (2024) conducted an extensive scope review in order “to characterize and conceptualize dual university education [in Spain] by analysing its core elements” (Sarceda-Gorgoso et al., 2024, p.83). As a result of their study, they propose a definition of dual university education (formación dual universitaria) which lists the core characteristics of this mode of education[3]. A first major step in the Europeanisation of dual study programs was the establishment of the Erasmus program in 1987 which aimed at supporting the educational, professional and personal development of people in education, training, youth and sport in Europe and beyond (European Commission, 2018, 2025, n.d.). However, recognition of certificates and degrees obtained while studying in another European country sometimes turned out to be difficult.
In 1999, representatives of 29 European countries signed the Bologna Declaration. The general idea of the declaration was to create a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) (European Commission, n.d.). One of the objectives was to promote mobility of students, in part by creating a European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) which made it easier for students to have the credits they obtained in another European country be recognised by their home institutions (KMK, n.d.). This, of course, made it easier for European students to study in Germany, including in dual study programs.
4.1. SAMEurope
In the framework of the Erasmus+ programme, five universities from European countries (France, Germany, Finland, Sweden and Spain) formed an alliance in 2022 for a dual study program for students studying sports (Student Athletes Erasmus+ Mobility in Europe – SAMEurope). This program helps students to find a training institution and a university in another European country and supports them while studying abroad (SAMEurope, n.d.). In 2023, the alliance published a Best Practices Compendium (SAMEurope, 2023) and in 2025, a research report followed which included a self-assessment survey of student athletes, a correspondence study on employer perceptions, and a LinkedIn-based analysis of career trajectories in post-university sports (SAMEurope, 2025).
4.2. EDU4DUAL
Another initiative that was co-funded by the European Commission in the frame of the Erasmus+ programme was the project EDU4DUAL established in 2022 in the context of European University Initiative. An alliance of European dual universities was formed with members in Austria, Croatia, France, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Malta, Poland and Spain. According to its mission statement, the alliance aims to tackle three grand challenges: the future of work, a green economy, and healthy living. Its vision is to create the largest dual university with campuses across Europe. (EU4DUAL, n.d.a, EU4DUAL, n.d.b). In 2025, the alliance published its first report on achievements and strategic goals for the future. Achievements included:
● the participation of 380 students and 175 staff in intra-institutional mobility programmes.
● the launch of 18 research projects supported by EU Horizon Funding, aligned with the alliance’s grand challenges.
● over 250,000 online engagements through the alliance’s website and social media channels.
● the publication of the first edition of the European Journal of Dual Higher Education (see EU4DUAL, 2024).
In addition, progress was reported on
● the launch of planning for three master’s programmes, with the first, the European Masters in Digital and Sustainable Manufacturing, set to launch in September 2025.
● the initiation of an annual conference on dual education, with the next edition on 2-3 April 2026 in San Sebastian & Bidart, already having attracted 400 participants (EU4DUAL, 2025).
These initiatives are quite new and there is hardly any research on their impact. Nonetheless, they seem to have a great potential to play a key role in bridging academic learning with practical workplace training across the European Higher Education Area. Not only do they allow students in one European country to engage in dual study programs in other European countries; they also contribute to the integration of European universities into the European Community.
Notes
Source of funding:
R&D&I Project: Supervision of work placements in dual training programmes in a digital world: Challenges, methodologies and best practices (DUAL-DIG). Ref: PID2022-141325NB-I00. Funding entity: MICIU/AEI/10.13039/50110001/ y cofinanciado por FEDER.UE.
References
Bach, M., Gawronski, K., Hoffmann, S. & Mudiappa, M. (2024). Bildungsbeteiligung und Bildungsförderung. In Sozialbericht 2024 (Ed.), Ein Datenbericht für Deutschland. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (BPB). (103-119). https://www.bpb.de/system/files/dokument_pdf/Sozialbericht_2024_bf_k2.pdf (last visited August 9th, 2025).
BIBB (n.d.a). Aufgaben und Leitlinien. https://www.bibb.de/de/461.php (last visited Aug. 26th, 2025)
BIBB (n.d.b). What is the BIBB’s role? https://www.bibb.de/en/198718.php (last visited Aug.27th, 2025)
BIBB (2019). Legal framework and financing of the German dual VET system. https://www.bibb.de/en/77214.php (last visited August 10th, 2025).
BIBB (2020). Duales Studium in Zahlen 2019 – Trends und Analysen. Bonn: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung. BIBB / AusbildungPlus – Duales Studium in Zahlen 2019
BIBB (2024). AusbildungPlus. Duales Studium in Zahlen 2024. Bonn: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung. BIBB / AusbildungPlus. Duales Studium in Zahlen 2024 (last visited Aug.23rd., 2025).
BMBF (2020). Das neue Berufsbildungsgesetz (BBiG).Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung. Das Berufsbildungsgesetz (BBiG) - BMFTR Styleguide (last visited April 6th, 2026)
BMBF (2022). Duales Studium: Umsetzungsmodelle und Entwicklungsbedarfe. Zentrale Ergebnisse der Studie [Fachinfo]. Duales Studium: Umsetzungsmodelle und Entwicklungsbedarfe (last visited April 6th, 2026)
Brünner, K., Chvosta, A. & Oertel, S. (2016): Die Institutionalisierung dualer Studiengänge: Hintergründe, Verlauf und Entwicklung. In U. Faßhauer & E. Severing, Eckart (Eds.), Verzahnung beruflicher und akademischer Bildung. Duale Studiengänge in Theorie
und Praxis. (63-80). Bertelsmann Verlag. (63–80). BIBB / Verzahnung beruflicher und akademischer Bildung
Brodsky, A. (2021). Lernen am Arbeitsplatz im dualen Studium. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36605-6
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing and mathematics (Technical Report No. 403). BBN Laboratories, Cambridge, MA. Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. January, 1987. (last visited Aug.7th, 2025)
Coones, W., Johannsen, T., & Philipp, T. (2023). Cooperative education. In T. Philipp & T. Schmohl (Eds.), Handbook Transdisciplinary Learning. (53-83) (PDF) Handbook Transdisciplinary Learning
DAAD (n.d.) Das duale Studium. Das duale Studium - DAAD (last visited April 6th, 2026)
DESTATIS (2024). Schülerinnen und Schüler an allgemeinbildenden Schulen. Statistisches Bundesamt. (last visited Aug.11th, 2025).
Edelstein, B. (2013). Das Bildungssystem in Deutschland. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (BPB). (last visited August 9th, 2025)
Euler, D., & Deißinger, T. (2013). Germany's dual vocational training system: A model for other countries? Bertelsmann Stiftung. GP_Germanys_dual_vocational_training_system.pdf (last visited April 6th, 2026).
European Commission (n.d.). The Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area. https://education.ec.europa.eu/education-levels/higher-education/inclusive-and-connected-higher-education/bologna-process (last visited Aug. 28th, 2025)
European Commission (2018). The EU in support of the Bologna Process. Brochure_Bologne_2018_6.indd (last visited Aug. 28th, 2025)
European Commission (2025). Erasmus+ EU programme for education, training, youth and sporthttps://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/erasmus-european-union-programme-for-education-training-youth-and-sport.html (last visited April 6th, 2026)
EU4DUAL (n.d.a). Who we are. Who we are - EU4Dual (last visited Aug. 28th, 2025).
EU4DUAL (n.d.b) EU4Dual – The European Dual Studies University. The European Dual Studies University - EU4Dual - EU4Dual (last visited Aug. 28th, 2025)
EU4DUAL (2024). European Journal of Dual Higher Education. https://eu4dual.education/kic-publication/european-journal-of-dual-higher-education/ (last visited Aug. 29th, 2025).
EU4DUAL (2025). EU4Dual at the midway point: Achievements and strategic goals for the future. https://www.fh-joanneum.at/en/news/eu4dual-at-the-midway-point/ (last visited Aug. 29th, 2025)
Georg, W. (2006). Berufsbildung in Entwicklungsländern. In R.Arnold & A. Lipsmeier (Eds.), Handbuch der Berufsbildung. (509-530). 2nd. rev. ed. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-90622-5_31
GEW (2025). Föderalismusreform und Hochschulen. Föderalismusreform und Hochschulen | GEW - Die Bildungsgewerkschaft (last visited Aug. 23rd, 2025)
Greinert, W.D. (2005). Mass vocational education and training in Europe. Classical models of the 19th century and training in England, France and Germany during the first half of the 20th. Cedefop Panorama series; 118. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/5157_en.pdf (last visited Aug. 9th, 2025)
Greinert, W.D. (2006). Geschichte der Berufsbildung in Deutschland. In R. Arnold & A. Lipsmeier (Eds.), Handbuch der Berufsbildung. (499-508). 2nd. rev. ed. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-90622-5_31
Grimm, R. (2015). Geschichte der Berufsschulen in Deutschland. https://www.baustoffwissen.de/geschichte-der-berufsschulen-in-deutschland-31102023?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Higher Education Compass (n.d.). Dual programmes - Studying and work experience. https://www.hochschulkompass.de/en/degree-programmes/all-about-studying-in-germany/forms-of-study/dual-work-study-programmes.html (last visited Aug. 18th, 2025).
Hofmann, S., Ansmann, M., Hemkes, B., König, M., Kutzner, P., Leo Joyce, S. et al. (2020). AusbildungPlus – Duales Studium in Zahlen 2019. Trends und Analysen. Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung. BIBB / AusbildungPlus – Duales Studium in Zahlen 2019. (last visited Aug.13th, 2025).
KMK (n.d.). Der Bologna-Prozess. https://www.kmk.org/themen/hochschulen/internationales/der-bologna-prozess.html (last visited Aug.27th, 2025).
KMK (2025). Statistische Veröffentlichungen der Bildungsministerkonferenz. Schüler/-innen, Klassen, Lehrkräfte und Absolvierende der Schulen 2014 bis 2023. Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Statistik/Dokumentationen/Dok-1-SKL2023.pdf (last visited Aug. 11th, 2025)
Krone, S. (Ed.) (2017). Dual Studieren im Blick. Springer Fachmedien. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-03430-6
Leitgeb, M. (2023). Entwicklung des Dualen Studiums. Masterarbeit. Universität Graz. https://unipub.uni-graz.at/obvugrhs/download/pdf/8546172?originalFilename=true (last visited Aug.15th, 2025)
MTRlegal (2025). Grundgesetz. https://www.mtrlegal.com/wiki/grundgesetz-gg/ (last visited Aug.24th, 2025)
Osswald, R. (1988). Die Berufsakademie Baden-Württemberg: eine Idee und ihre Verwirklichung. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. ISBN-13: 9783421063946
Pahl, J.P. (2014). Berufsschule – Annäherungen an eine Theorie des Lernortes. Bertelsmann. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:19643
SAMEurope (n.d.). Student Athletes Erasmus+ Mobility in Europe. https://www.sameuropeproject.eu/ (last visited Aug.18th, 2025)
SAMEurope. (2023). Guide of Good Practices: Best Practices Compendium for Student-Athletes in Erasmus+ Mobility. SAMEurope Project. https://www.sameuropeproject.eu/guide-of-good-practices (last visited Aug.29th, 2025)
SAMEurope (2025). Deliverable D4.3 of the Erasmus+ SAMEurope project. https://www.sameuropeproject.eu/app/uploads/2025/07/Deliverable_4.3_WP4.pdf (last visited Aug. 29th, 2025).
Sarceda-Gorgoso, C., Allur-Aranburu, E., Resposo- Rivas, M. y Barberá-Gregori, M.A. (2024). Caracterización y conceptualización de la Formación Dual Universitaria en España. Revista Prácticum, 9(2), 83-98. https://doi.org/10.24310/rep.9.2.2024.20937
Schmidt, H. (1977). Vom Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildungsforschung (BBF) zum Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB). Franz Steiner Verlag. https://www.bwp-zeitschrift.de/dienst/publikationen/de/11529 (last visited Aug. 26th, 2025)
Steffens, K. (2023). The practicum in teacher education at the University of Cologne (Germany). Revista Prácticum, 8(2), 7-16. https://doi.org/10.24310/rep.8.2.2023.17580
Wissenschaftsrat. (2013). Empfehlungen zur Entwicklung des dualen Studiums. Positionspapier. https://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/download/archiv/3479-13.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4 (last visited Aug 15th, 2025)
Wollschläger, N. & Guggenheim, E.F. (2004). Zur Geschichte der beruflichen Bildung in Europa. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/399/32_de_editorial.pdf (last visited Aug. 15th)
Wolter, A. (2016). Der Ort des dualen Studiums zwischen beruflicher und akademischer Bildung. In U. Faßhauer & E. Severing (Hrsg.), Verzahnung beruflicher und akademischer Bildung. Duale Studiengänge in Theorie und Praxis (Berichte zur beruflichen Bildung, Bd. 19. (39–60). Bertelsmann. BIBB / Verzahnung beruflicher und akademischer Bildung (last visited Aug.13th, 2025).