Digital organizational culture and online digital educational coaching: A meta-analysis study in the field of Social Sciences

Throughout its history, humanity has never had as many Information and Communication Technologies at its disposal as it does today, technologies that are rapidly multiplying due to digitization (Cabero-Almenara, & Ruiz-Palmero, 2018). Currently, technological advances, combined with the Artificial Intelligence of our modern era, constitute fundamental support in all aspects of human life (Chicaiza-Vinueza et al., 2022; Montenegro-Rueda et al., 2023; Vázquez-Cano et al., 2020). They are increasing at an exponential rate, integrating into our lifestyles each day (Yarin, & Gamarra, 2022). Moreover, this digital integration in research tasks will allow for updating and expanding knowledge more rapidly and accessibly than in previous years (Guillén-Gámez et al., 2024).

Simultaneously, the global Covid-19 pandemic has highlighted the significant role of technology in society and the teaching-learning process in general (Delgado-Rodríguez et al., 2023). These technologies have become resources that demand new types of learning and ways of learning from citizens, necessary both for active participation in various interaction contexts that have emerged and for responding to the labor and productivity demands within today’s society (López-Meneses et al., 2020).

In the context of the globalized techno-social era, organizations urgently need to consider new cultural aspects to address digitization, requiring adjustments in their structures, values, and assumptions within the context of digital transformation. This goal can be achieved through the implementation of a Digital Organizational Culture, as emphasized by Kocak and Pawlowski (2023). This culture is defined as the set of shared assumptions and common understandings of organizational practices in the digital context (Deshpande, & Webster, 1989). It is distinguished by various specific characteristics, such as the acceptance of innovation, the ability to collaborate, skill in processing large volumes of data and information agilely, competence in navigating complex environments, and willingness to take risks (Davison, & Ou, 2017; Serpa et al., 2022). In summary, Digital Organizational Culture, understood as a product in constant evolution and a dynamic process, emerges in an environment marked by indeterminacy and uncertainty, permeated by the continuous presence of digital technology (Zhen et al., 2021).

On the other hand, coaching in the organizational context has emerged in the last two decades not only as a popular but also effective intervention for human resource development that can have beneficial outcomes at both individual and organizational levels (DeHaan, & Nilsson, 2023; Grover, & Furnham, 2016; Passmore et al., 2023). It consists of a synchronous intervention to train clients to achieve their self-rated goals in a self-determined manner using conversation management techniques such as open-ended questions or active listening, aimed at stimulating client self-awareness and self-determination (Díaz, 2016; Passmore, & Fillery-Travis, 2011; Passmore, & Lai, 2019; Diller et al., 2020). The core of coaching is its facilitating nature (Passmore, & Lai, 2019). Additionally, in line with King et al. (2020), coaching examines how to apply knowledge and skills to a given situation, enabling individuals to work on their actions in response to challenges within their current context.

The executive coach must consider the social context in which the individuals they advise are immersed (Revilla-Castro et al., 2021). In this sense, Kombarakaran et al. (2008) emphasize the importance of organizational commitment by the executive coach, while Gray et al. (2011) highlight the need for knowledge of strategy, management skills, communication, and organizational ethics as essential competencies for the coach to effectively progress in the relationship. In other words, it is crucial for the coach to carry out their work considering and being linked to the knowledge of the organizational culture in which the individuals they guide and advise operate.

In the international context, coaching is a fundamental tool for improving an organization’s personnel because it helps mitigate resistance to change and facilitates personal and organizational goals through contextual analysis of change, resistance, and methodology. Therefore, coaching is a technical procedure of change and progress that focuses on human talent, promoting greater motivation and personal satisfaction (Álvarez et al., 2017). Various authors (Kombarakaran et al., 2008; Passmore, 2010) affirm that organizational culture is critical to coaching development. The coach must study the organizational culture and environment to support its development so that the benefits are seen in both the individual and the entire organization. In this sense, Whitmore (2013) indicates that coaching can be understood as a unique and different technique for discovering talents and benefiting each member of an organization or work team, and above all, everyone collectively.

Finally, if we link organizational culture with educational institutions, educational coaching emerges as a practice that seeks to improve the personal and academic development of students through guidance, stimulation, and goal-setting to provide more meaningful and student-centered educational experiences. Rejas (2023) points out that coaching is an effective tool for improving performance in various contexts, including the educational field, leading to professional success by strengthening motivation. It involves unleashing the latent potential in each individual; at the educational level, this conception implies working with students to identify and achieve their academic goals and develop soft skills essential for success in life. Likewise, in line with Sánchez-Anguita and Pulido-López (2022), it is a guided learning process for improvement and a formative tool for professionals to help students bring out the best in themselves, as well as being a strategy to enhance leadership (Veliz, & Paravic, 2012). Similarly, educational coaching can have a significant impact on the emotional well-being of teachers (Vasques, 2023), changing their perception of public institutions by aiming to achieve their goals, improve their leadership skills, and manage school culture. From this perspective, we must start with individualization as a fundamental principle, recognizing the diversity of learning styles and individual needs, thus addressing the consideration that a one-size-fits-all educational approach is ineffective for all students.

On the other hand, when implemented effectively, educational coaching can align educators and students with the values and goals of organizational culture. In this sense, the connection between organizational culture and educational coaching is evident when considering the relevance of both elements in the educational field. However, it is essential that they have a dynamic and adaptive character, capable of adjusting to various transformations, modifying their cultures to meet emerging techno-educational needs.

Currently, there is a widespread consensus in considering that digital technology encompasses a combination of these, such as information technology, connectivity, communication, computing, among others (Pradana et al., 2022). In this sense, various authors (Brandenburg; & Ellinger, 2023; International Coaching Federation, 2021; Passmore, 2021) point to the growing trend towards the use of digital technology in coaching, and the pandemic has promoted and accelerated this process, increasing the adoption of digital technology in the coaching context. In this regard, coaching conducted through digital means, ‘digital coaching’ can be defined as a personal and synchronous conversation that uses audio and/or video communication channels enabled by digital technologies between a human coach and a human client to empower and capacitate the coachee/client in their self-development (Diller, & Passmore, 2023).

Therefore, at this moment of technological expansion, it is necessary to investigate the scientific production in Scopus related to the impact of digital organizational culture in symbiosis with digital educational coaching. For this purpose, the following research questions were formulated:

1. What is the overall state of research on Digital Organizational Culture and digital educational coaching?
2. Which countries are most productive in publications on these topics?
3. What are the most used languages in published works?

Organizational culture refers to shared values, beliefs, and practices that characterize an organization; it is an essential component that influences how employees interact, make decisions, and face daily challenges. Its importance lies in its ability to shape the identity and direction of a company. It is a dynamic force that, according to Hofstede (1991), impacts an organization’s internal efficiency and overall performance. The culture influences how professionals perceive their roles, interact with each other, and address issues. For it to gain internal strength, it requires the promotion of cohesion, loyalty, and productivity, preventing conflicts, lack of motivation, or high turnover rates. It affects the internal dynamics and performance of an organization and plays a crucial role in its long-term success and its ability to attract and retain talent. Furthermore, by fostering an organizational culture grounded in a profound respect for individuals, one that actively promotes personal, professional, familial, and social development in tandem with engagement with the broader environment, the goal is to ensure that such a culture has a tangible impact on the performance and overall effectiveness of the constituents within an organization (Rincón-Rodríguez, & Aldana-Bautista, 2021).

In synthesis, organizational culture constitutes the confluence of norms, habits, and values actively embraced by individuals within an organizational framework, thereby defining the collective behavioral modality (González, & Fernández, 2000). This approach strengthens the idea that organizational culture not only influences internal dynamics and production, but constrains the day-to-day interaction of employees, highlighting its integral impact on the organization.

Coaching has experienced substantial development as a discipline that fosters change and well-being in individuals and organizations globally (González et al., 2018). At the core of coaching, as emphasized by various coaching authors, is its facilitative nature (Passmore, & Lai, 2019). Diaz (2016) defines coaching as a method that involves accompanying, instructing, and training a manager to achieve their goals and enhance specific skills related to effectiveness, efficiency, and performance optimization within the organization. This is achieved by addressing challenges and commitments.

Additionally, King et al. (2020) assert that coaching examines how to apply knowledge and skills to the given situation, enabling individuals to work on their actions in response to the challenges they face within their current context. Furthermore, coaching motivates the effort, allowing individuals to translate theory into practice because they possess the necessary communication tools.

In the international context, coaching is a fundamental tool in improving an organization’s personnel because it will help mitigate resistance to change and facilitate personal and organizational objectives through contextual analysis of change, resistance, and methodology. Therefore, coaching is a technical procedure for change and progress that focuses on human talent, favoring increased motivation and personal satisfaction (Álvarez et al., 2017). Various authors (Kombarakaran et al., 2008; Passmore, 2010; Tooth et al., 2013), affirm that organizational culture is critical to coaching development. The coach must study the organizational culture and environment to support its development so that the benefits are seen in the individual and throughout the entire organization. In this sense, Whitmore (2013) indicates that coaching can be understood as a unique and different technique to discover talents and benefit each member of an organization or work team and, above all, everyone together. Finally, educational coaching, as noted by Sánchez-Anguita and Pulido (2022), is a guided learning process for improvement and a formative tool for a professional to help students bring out the best in themselves, in addition to being a strategy to enhance leadership (Veliz, & Paravic, 2012).

If we link organizational culture and schools, educational coaching emerges as a practice that seeks to enhance student’s personal and academic development through guidance, stimulation, and goal setting to provide more meaningful and student-centered educational experiences. Rejas (2023) pointed out that coaching is an effective tool for improving performance in various contexts, including the educational field, leading to professional success by strengthening motivation. It is about unleashing the latent potential in each individual; at the educational level, this conception involves working with students to identify and achieve their academic goals and developing soft skills essential for success in life.

Moreover, educational coaching can significantly impact the emotional well-being of teachers (Vasques, 2023), changing their perception of public institutions by aiming for the achievement of their goals, enhancing their leadership skills, and managing school culture. From this perspective, we must start from individualization as a fundamental principle, recognizing the diversity of learning styles and individual needs, thus addressing the consideration that a one-size-fits-all approach to education is ineffective for all students.

If we link organizational culture and schools, educational coaching emerges as a practice that seeks to enhance student’s personal and academic development through guidance, stimulation, and goal setting to provide more meaningful and student-centered educational experiences. Rejas (2023) pointed out that coaching is an effective tool for improving performance in various contexts, including the educational field, leading to professional success by strengthening motivation. It is about unleashing the latent potential in each individual; at the educational level, this conception involves working with students to identify and achieve their academic goals and developing soft skills essential for success in life.

The connection between organizational culture and educational coaching becomes evident when considering the importance of both elements in the educational field. However, they must have a dynamic and adaptive character to adapt to the multiple changes, adjusting their cultures to meet new emerging needs.

The organizational culture of an educational institution sets the tone, defines the fundamental values, and affects how educators and students interact within the educational community. Specifically, Goleman et al. (2002) highlight the influence of emotional intelligence on effective leadership, considering that an educational leader who understands and embraces organizational culture can positively influence the learning environment and promote collaboration and motivation among staff members and students.

When implemented effectively, educational coaching can align educators and students with the values and goals of organizational culture. For example, if the institution’s culture prioritizes innovation and collaboration, an educational coaching program can focus on developing critical thinking skills, problem-solving, and teamwork among students. Additionally, educators can receive training to improve their teaching methods and foster a collaborative learning environment. If the culture promotes continuous improvement and professional development, educators will be more open to participating in such activities to strengthen their skills and contribute to the educational institution’s success.

This bibliometric study has been carried out in the Scopus database, offering researchers a wide collection of peer-reviewed publications (indexed and full text). Furthermore, it is one of the most significant repositories of scientific publications, providing a diversity of scientific resources as well as the opportunity to access high-quality scientific literature (Abad-Segura et al., 2023; Esteve-Mon et al., 2014; Madanipour, & Cohrssen, 2019). The purpose of the present bibliometric research was to examine scientific production related to Organizational Culture and Coaching in the educational domain through the Scopus database.

The data review used the keywords Organizational Culture OR Educational Coaching AND Education, limiting the results to those publications categorized in Social Sciences. The search was conducted in English in order to cover a more significant number of publications. The analysis tools available in the database were used for topic, types of publication, thematic area, country, publication, author, and year, whose data have been treated both through descriptive statistics according to frequencies and percentage data, as well as statisticians analyzing the correlation coefficient to determine the importance of the theme in the social research over the years. Subsequently, the data was submitted to a study by concurrence using the VosViewer software, delimiting the concepts related to the indicated keywords. On the other hand, a content analysis of the publications in Spanish has been carried out, analyzing the proposed approach, considering the abstracts of the published articles as a reference.

VOSviewer is mighty software for performing bibliometric analysis and offers several advantages. For example, it presents an attractive interface, can handle large datasets, integrates network visualization and clustering techniques, and allows the researcher to identify and visualize the relationships between different dataset elements, such as authors, keywords, or publications. Moreover, it is free to use. These advantages make VOSviewer a valuable tool for bibliometric analysis (Van Eck, & Waltman, 2010), especially in visualizing and interpreting complex research landscapes.

The results reflect a total of 893 documents indexed in Social Sciences, which, in their keywords, integrate the concepts of “Organizational Culture” and/or “Educational Training” and “Education.” The theme of organizational culture in education finds the first document that can be considered as a precursor in 1964 by Blunberg and Edmund, from Philadelphia (USA), who carried out a study on the school as an organizational entity and the multiplicity of factors that interact and that they can explain the particular culture of each school.

It was not until the 1980s when interest in social research in this area began to be resumed, and the concept of educational training was also addressed, which acquired significant relevance from the 1990s, as can be seen in Table 1 and graphs 1 and 2.

TABLE 1. Published documents grouped by decade.

Note: By author from Scopus database

GRAPH 1. Historical evolution by decades of publications on Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education in Social Sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

The gradual interest in this topic is evident in the strong Pearson correlation of 0.8506775 between the number of publications and year (graph 2).

GRAPH 2. Pearson’s correlation coefficient shows the historical evolution by years of publications on organizational culture and/or educational training and education in the field of social sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

The preferred means for disseminating research results (graph 3) is mainly through indexed journals (81.19%), specifically 160 different journals, of which the ones that have published the most articles on this subject are shown in table 2. , of which 56% of them are integrated into the category of education (graph 4).

GRAPH 3. Type of documents of the publications in Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and Education in Social Sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

TABLE 2. List of journals with more publications and their indexing.

Note: By author from Scopus database

GRAPH 4. Indexing category of the journals with the most publications on Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education in Social Sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

Regarding the origin of its production, contributions have been made by 159 authors from different institutions from 64 different countries (83 publications without defining the country of origin). However, the USA (41% with 491 publications) and the United Kingdom (10% with 117 publications) can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. Regarding language, 98% of the publications have been made in English.

FIGURE 1. Frequency of publications by continents and countries in Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education in Social Sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

FIGURE 2. Map of publications by country in Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education in Social Sciences.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

Considering the number of citations (at least 150 citations) and the impact index of the principal author (Table 3), we can highlight the following works as the most relevant:

TABLE 3. Most relevant publications by number of citations.

Source: Own elaboration from Scopus database

The concurrence analysis (Figure 3) gives us the following results from a qualitative analysis. We have grouped around 6 main categories (organization, organizational culture, education, leadership, interprofessional relations, and interpersonal communication) that encompass 53 codes.

FIGURE 3. Cloud of concurrence of the main categories and codes in publications on Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education in Social Science.

Ultimately, if we focus on the 13 documents written in Spanish (Table 4), it is identified that their themes have been the following:

TABLE 4. Analysis of the approaches given to Organizational Culture and/or Educational Training and education concerning education by the authors who have published in Spanish.

In educational research, knowledge of organizational culture and its relationship with educational coaching is becoming increasingly important (Alatorre, 2013). It influences how employees interact, make decisions, and face daily challenges. Moreover, it is a dynamic force that influences internal effectiveness and overall performance. Therefore, when applied to the world of education, it allows us to understand the dynamics present in schools better. Its analysis should be more present in educational research, especially in its qualitative dimension, which should be better value for all that it contributes to the improvement of teaching (Bernad et al., 2022; Ponce et al., 2022).

Educational coaching, on the other hand, has undergone substantial development as a discipline aimed at promoting change and the well-being of individuals and organizations worldwide (Serey, & Zúñiga, 2021). It is defined as a method that accompanies, instructs, and trains a manager to achieve his or her objectives and enhance specific skills related to effectiveness, efficiency, and performance optimization within the organization (Loreto, 2021). Coaching is a fundamental tool in improving an organization’s personnel because it helps mitigate resistance to change and facilitates personal and organizational goals through contextual analysis of change, resistance, and methodology (Alias et al., 2020). Some elements, such as emotions, remain in the realm of individual experience and are natural and spontaneous qualities. There is no clear indication of what they are, when they arise, what they depend on, and how best to manage them (Pawłowska, 2020), but contemplating methods to improve the well-being of those involved in educational processes is essential. Recent studies show that there are multiple areas in which educational coaching could improve the capacities and relationship climate of education and training centers (Ramos et al., 2019). The emotional aspect is determinant in the quality of education, regardless of level and age, as contemplated in the UN Sustainable Development Goals, and we must take into account its importance, especially in the most sensitive and comprehensive elements of education, including bullying or harassment (Eselyn, 2021; Munuera et al., 2023; Rubio-Gonzales, & del Rosario Pérez-Uribe, 2016), but also in the usual day-to-day educational scenarios.

In addition, many lines of research concerning educational coaching are currently open. For example, those related to emotional intelligence and well-being: given the growing recognition of the importance of this topic in education, it is essential to determine the role of emotional intelligence in educational coaching (Olay, 2018; Santamaría et al., 2021). Another research area of interest is the role of educational coaching in developing effective leadership within educational institutions, i.e., the relationship between leadership and educational coaching (Gross, 2004; Wise, 2010). It explores how educational coaching can be used to develop the leadership skills of educators and administrators and how this can contribute to the overall success of educational institutions. The relationship between coaching and ICT is also of interest. With the increasing use of technology in education, some studies focus on exploring how educational coaching can be delivered effectively through digital platforms. The potential benefits and drawbacks of using technology in this area are analyzed (Domínguez Martín et al., 2018). Given the significance of diversity and inclusion in education, a line of research of much relevance is how educational coaching can be used to promote diversity and inclusion within educational institutions and to support educators in creating inclusive learning environments (Lucas, 2020), in addition to how it can be used to address issues of bias and discrimination.

Therefore, the connection between organizational culture and educational coaching becomes evident when considering the importance of both elements in the educational setting (Alatorre, 2013).In the context of education, the organizational culture of an educational institution sets the tone, defines the core values, and affects the way educators and students interact within the educational community. Educational coaching emerges as a practice that aims to enhance the personal and academic development of members of the educational community (Eide et al., 2016). It can also significantly impact teachers’ emotional well-being, changing their perception of public institutions by targeting the achievement of their goals, improving their leadership skills, and managing school culture (Alias et al., 2020; Tomlinson, 2004). Furthermore, it encompasses multiple scenarios and dimensions, as the results of this study have shown. In general, the role of organizational culture in shaping the identity and leadership of educational institutions should be emphasized in dialogue with the impact of educational coaching on personal and academic development and the emotional well-being of the educational community. Therefore, the dynamic and adaptive nature of organizational culture and educational coaching to meet emerging needs and challenges in education should be emphasized.

Reviewing the scientific literature that relates organizational cultural studies in symbiosis with educational coaching helps configure a thrilling space for analysis and reflection in which theoretical and practical interest exists. This review reveals that many of these publications are concentrated in specialized or monographic journals and specific countries, with uneven scientific production on this subject. In this line, it is necessary to reflect on new ways of international collaboration for a more significant multicultural academic debate.

Understanding organizational culture and its correlation with educational coaching is becoming increasingly important in educational research. Organizational culture plays a fundamental role in education today. It provides a better understanding of the dynamics present in schools. The qualitative dimension of the organizational culture analysis highlights its important contributions to improving teaching. Educational coaching has also experienced remarkable development as a discipline aimed at fostering change and the well-being of individuals within educational environments. The changing nature of organizational culture and educational coaching implies further research and analysis to understand its influence on educational practices and outcomes.

Ultimately, in agreement with Burger and Van Coller-Peter (2019), the trend in recent years may be in the direction of increasing the context of coaching, including all the stakeholders involved and as Calvo de Mora et al. (2015) can help increase individual awareness and enhance personal values, as well as being an interesting opportunity to contribute socially as individuals and professionals.

5.1. Limitations and Future Lines

Despite the efforts made in this research, it is necessary to acknowledge some limitations that could impact the interpretation of the results. Firstly, the bibliometric search was conducted in English, which might have excluded relevant documents in other languages. Additionally, the categorisation of publications in Social Sciences could have omitted valuable contributions from other related disciplines. The restriction to specific keywords could also have overlooked relevant research that did not explicitly include them. Moreover, the cut-off date for the search might have excluded more recent works providing additional perspectives.

The limitations of this research nevertheless highlight areas of interest that could be explored in future studies. It would be beneficial to extend the search to several languages in order to obtain a more complete picture of the scientific production in this field. In addition, considering the inclusion of disciplines beyond the social sciences could enrich the understanding of the intersection between organisational culture and educational coaching. It is suggested to investigate how coaching practices can be adapted to different cultural and educational contexts, as well as to delve into the impact of coaching on the emotional well-being of educators. Furthermore, researching the relationship between organizational culture and coaching in specific educational environments could provide more detailed insights into the effectiveness of these practices in different educational institutions.

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