Wysiedlenia inwestycyjne: Przyczyny, konsekwencje i kontekst prawny
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24310/chrlpl.6.2013.23632Keywords:
Development-induced displacement and resettlement, Internal displacement, DIDR, Public Internation Law, Human righst, Involuntary resettlement, Recolocation, Forced migrationsAbstract
At least fifteen million people each year is forced to leave their homes following the consequences of development projects, such as creation of large dams, urbanization and re-urbanization, development of communication networks, mining and transportation of resources and even the conservation of nature. The problem of development-induced displacement and resettlement is currently one of the most significant factors of forced migrations. The first exstensive studies on this subject were undertaken by applied anthropologists during fifties of the XXth century, which was associated with the consequences of construction of large dams in Africa. Since at least two decades we have witnessed significant attention in this issue on the basis of public international law and human rights. The construction of chinese Three Gorges dam on the Yangtze River or Sardar Sarovar complex on the Narmada River led to enormous social and environmental consequences, and human rights violations associated with the displacement. Similar problems are also observed in several other regions of the world. The aim of this paper is an analysis of development-induced displacement as a global social problem, diverse category of internal displacement and challenge for the international institutions and public international law. The problem in strongly linked with the reflection on the mechanisms of legal protection of particularly vulnerable communities and minorities. The paper complements the studies on empowerment of indigenous communities and more sustanaible development growth conducted on the basis of development studies. In the first section I draw attention to the origins and evolution of scientific research undertaken within this problem. The aim of the next part is the analysis of causes and consequences of such displacement. The last section on the article is focused on activities of international institutions in the regard of resettlement planning, assistance to affected people and its legal protection.
References
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1 R. Chambers, Settlement schemes in Tropical Africa: A study of organizations and development, Praeger, London,1969.
2 Następstwem huraganu Sandy z października 2012 roku stała się czasowa przynajmniej ewakuacja 776 tysiecy osób.
3 Podane statystyki mają wyłącznie przybliżony charakter. B. Termiński, Przesiedlenia inwestycyjne: Nowa kategoria migracji przymusowych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Łośgraf, Warszawa, 2012.
4 Spośród ogromnej literatury przedmiotu poświęconej powstaniu Zapory Trzech Przełomów warto zwrócić uwagę na następujące pozycje G. Heggelund, "Resettlement Programmes and Environmental Capacity in the Three Gorges Dam Project", Development and Change, vol. 37, no. 1, January 2006, pp. 179-199; P. K. Gellert, "Mega Projects and Displacements", International Social Science Journal, vol. 55, no. 175, March 2003, s. 15-25; J. Xi, Sean-Shong Hwang, X. Feng, X. Qiao, Y. Cao, "Perceived Risks and Benefits of the Three Gorges Project", Sociological Perspectives, vol. 50, no. 2, Summer 2007, pp. 323-337; L.P. Kite, Building the Three Gorges Dam, Heinemann/Raintree, 2011; M. Kammerer, The Three Gorges Dam (Der Drei Schluchten-Damm), GRIN Verlag, 2009; D. Quing, The river dragon has come!: the three gorges dam and the fate of China's Yangtze River and it's people, M.E. Sharpe, 1998.
5 M. M. Cernea, African Involuntary Population Resettlement in a Global Context, World Bank, Washington DC, 2000.
6 J. Stanley, Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement, Working Paper, Oxford Refugee Centre, 2004, dostępne na stronie: http://www.forcedmigration.org/research-resources/expert-guides/development-induced-displacement-and-resettlement/fmo022.pdf
7 Większość danych statystycznych zawartych w tym opacowaniu pochodzi z jednej z moich publikacji anglojęzycznych. Por. B. Termiński, Development-induced diplacement and resettlement: Theoretical frameworks and current challenges, CEDEM Working Paper, University of Liege, 2013.
8 W. Courtland Robinson, Risks and Rights: The Causes, Consequences and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement, Brookings Institution, 2002.
9 Ibidem, p. 19.
10 Wspomniane szacunki odnoszą się do projektów finansowanych bądź współfinansowanych przez Bank Światowy w latach 1986-1993, por. Bankwide Review of Projects Involving Involuntary Resettlement (1986-1993).
11 B. Termiński, Przesiedlenia inwestycyjne: Nowa kategoria przymusowych migracji, Oficyna Wydawnicza Łośgraf, Warszawa, 2012; B. Termiński, Oil-induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue, Research Paper, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, March 2012; B. Termiński, Mining-induced displacement and resettlement: Social problem and human rights issue, unpublished research paper, Geneva, September 2012.
12 M. J. Watts, "Petro-Violence: Community, Extraction, and Political Ecology of a Mythic Commodity" [w] M. L. Peluso, M. J. Watts (red.), Violent Environments: Essays on the Metaphysics of Human Persons, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2001, p. 189.
13 M. Dowie, Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-year Conflict Between Global Conservation and Native People, MIT Press, 2009.
14 Także współcześnie wymienić możemy przykłady uwarunkowanych politycznie programów redystrybucji ludności. Wspomnijmy tu choćby o relokacjach związanych z tworzeniem bantustanów w związku z polityką apartheidu w RPA. Szacuje się, że w latach 1960-1980 przesiedlono do nich aż 3,5 miliona osób.
15 E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement: The Impact of the Kariba Resettlement upon the Gwembe Tonga, Manchester University Press, 1971.
16 T. Scudder, E. Colson, "From welfare to development: a conceptual framework for the analysis of dislocated people" W: A. Hansen, A. Oliver-Smith (red.), In-voluntary migration and resettlement, Westview Press, Boulder CO, 1982.
17 T. Scudder, The Future of Large Dams: Dealing with Social, Environmental, Institutional and Political Costs, Earthscan, London, 2005; T. Scudder, Global Threats, Global Futures: Living with Declining Living Standards, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2010.
18 T. Scudder, The Future of Large Dams: Dealing with Social, Environmental, Institutional and Political Costs, Earthscan, London, 2005, p. 33.
19 Por zwłaszcza: M.M. Cernea, "The risks and reconstruction model for resettling displaced populations", World Development, vol. 25, no. 10, October 1997, pp. 1569-1587.
20 M. M. Cernea, "Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: a model for population displacement and resettlement" w: M. M. Cernea, C. McDowell (red.), Risks and reconstruction: experiences of resettlers and refugees, The World Bank, Washington D. C., 2000, p. 53.
21 Wśród elementów charakterystycznych konceptu bezpieczeństwa ludzkiego wymienia się: koncentrację na problemach jednostek i grup społecznych, wielosektorowość, wszechstronność, duży nacisk na kontekst zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa, oraz ukierunkowanie na prewencję zagrożeń (ang. people-centered, multi-sectoral, comprehensive, context-specific, and prevention-oriented).
22 OP 4.12 on Involuntary Resettlement http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTFORESTS/Resources/ OP412.
23 Special Evaluation Study on The Policy Impact of Involuntary Resettlement, Asian Development Bank, Spetember 2000.
24 "Involuntary Resettlement Policy", African Development Bank, November 2003, available at: http://www.afdb.org/ fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Policy-Documents/10000009-EN-BANK-GROUP-INVOLUNTARY-RESETTLEMENT-POLICY.PDF
25 Ibidem.
26 "Involuntary Resettlement Operational Policy and Background Paper", IADB, Washington D.C., 1998, available at: http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=2032100
27 Na spotkaniu ministrów środowiska OECD z grudnia 1991 roku przyjęto także trzy inne dokumenty: 1. Good Practices for Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects, 2. Good Practices for Country Environmental Surveys and Strategies; and, 3. Guidelines for Aid Agencies on Global Environmental Problems.
28 R. Stojanov, J. Novosak, „Environmental Migration in China”, Geographica, vol. 39, 2006, pp. 65-82.
29 Więcej na temat dokumentu w kontekście problemu przesiedleń inwestycyjnych por. zwłaszcza: K. Luopajarvi, „Is there an Obligation on States to Accept International Humanitarian Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons under International Law?”, International Journal of Refugee Law, vol. 15, no. 4, 2003, pp. 678-714.
30 Tekst dokumentu w języku angielskim dostępny na stronie: http://daccessdds.ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/ G98/104/93/PDF/G9810493.pdf?OpenElement
31 Oryginalny kontekst angielski: „The prohibition of arbitrary displacement includes displacement: (c) In cases of large-scale development projects, which are not justified by compelling and overriding public interests”.
32 M. Barutciski, „International Law and Development Induced Displacement and Resettlement” [w] C. J. De Wet (red.), Development-induced displacement: Problems, policies, and people, Berghahn Books, 2006, pp. 72-73.
33 Więcej na temat dokumentu por. zwłaszcza: L. Groth, „Engendering Protection: an Analysis of the 2009 Kampala Convention and its Provisions for Internally Displaced Women”, International Journal of Refugee Law, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, s. 221-251; S. Ojeda, „The Kampala Convention on Internally Displaced Persons: Some International Humanitarian Law Aspects”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 3, 2010, pp. 58-66.
34 Warto zauważyć, że w treści dokumentu posłużono się dużo mniej utrwalonym w piśmiennictwie terminem „displacement induced by projects”.
35 Porównując zawartość konwencji z tekstem dokumentu z 1998 roku podkreślić należy daleko idące uszczegółowienie warstwy merytorycznej. Istotną wadę dokumentu stanowi jednak całkowite oderwanie jego warstwy tekstualnej od regionalnego kontekstu przesiedleń przymusowych w Afryce, por. zwłaszcza: F. Z. Giustiniani, „New Hopes and Challenges for the Protection of IDPs in Africa: The Kampala Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa”, Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, Spring 2011.
36 N.J. Udombana, „The Third World and the Right to Development: Agenda for the Next Millennium”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 3, August 2000, pp. 753-787.
37 A. Oliver-Smith, Displacement, Resistance and the Critique of Development: From the grass-roots to the global, RSC Working Paper No. 9, Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford, November 2002.
